The first invasion of Britain under Julius Caesar BC 55–AD 47
At the beginning of the last century BC, Britain was seen as a mysterious place and a rich source of metals, especially tin. The south eastern British tribes were trading with Rome before the ‘Invasion’. By 58 BC the Roman Empire dominated most of the Mediterranean, from the deserts of North Africa to the Pyrenees. Across this vast empire they imposed their laws, culture, administrative systems, language and taxation. General Julius Caesar was fighting to secure Gaul for Rome. Britain lay very close, on what was thought to be the edge of the world. The Romans saw the British people as primitive and uncivilised. They were in fact highly skilled in many crafts and traded across Northern Europe. They were however a divided people, made up of many fragmented clans and tribes with frequently changing alliances. Caesar calculated that conquering Britain and Gaul would be a tremendous boost to his career. [Caesar mounted his invasion in 55 BC only to have a significant part of it beaten back by storms. The remainder met strong resistance. He withdrew to come back in greater strength a year later. This invasion was more successful adding to Caesar’s growing prestige, but after a short time he withdrew to deal with a revolt in Gaul. After Caesar’s invasion, some tribes in the south east of England had much closer links with the Roman Empire. Some paid taxes to Rome and courted Roman support and protection. There is very little evidence however to suggest that the Welsh tribes had been affected by the invasion or had connections with Rome.
The Claudian invasion AD 43
The Romans saw themselves as bringing their civilisation and culture to a ‘barbarian’ world. They considered their culture to be superior to that of others and expansion was essential to the stability and wealth of the Empire. Claudius needed the glory of conquest to prove his worth as the new Emperor. He had been put on the throne by the Praetorian Guard after they had murdered the Emperor Caligula. He was aware that his position was tenuous and he needed to prove himself. Britain provided Claudius with the opportunity to better the achievements of his esteemed ancestor Julius Caesar to gain glory and secure support. Verica, king of the Atrebates, appealed to Rome for help against tribal aggression in Britain. Claudius acted swiftly and ordered the invasion under General Plautius. It is assumed that the invading force was approximately 40,000 men and they landed unopposed probably near Richmond. The Romans soon had a major foothold in Catuvellaunian territory, having defeated their army under Caratacus and his brother Togodumnus . Plautius sent for Claudius to complete the advance and take the glory. Claudius arrived with elephants and advanced to the Catuvellaunian capital of Camulodunum (Colchester) establishing his military base there. Caratacus however had escaped to south Wales to raise the tribes against the invasion. Claudius ordered General Vespasian, later to become Emperor Vespasian to advance with II Augusta along the south coast and by AD 47 much of southern Britain had capitulated and the legions had set up bases as far west as Exeter and north as far as Lincoln.
The Roman Conquest of Britain
Timeline of Roman Governors of Britannia and key events during their reign
Aulus Platius 43 - 47
43 Appointed by Claudius to lead the invasion of Britannia
43 The Britons resistance was led by Togodumnus and Caratacus of the Catuvellauni tribe.
Publius Ostorius Scapula 47 - 52 Was noted for his tactical skill rather than his political acumen47 Raids on the west Midlands by the Decangli sparked the first conflicts with the legions.
47 Tacitus states how Caratacus ‘leads’ Silurian and Ordovician resistance against invading Roman army
48 Ostorius brought about the submission of the Deceangli attacking across the River Dee. This was successful in dividing the people of the highlands of Wales from the highlands of north England.
49 The Romans sought to divide the people of Wales from those of south western Britain by establishing a major fortress at Gloucester, from where they launched a campaign against the Silures and Caratacus.
51 Caratacus driven north into the lands of the Ordovices. Ostorius managed to force him into an open conflict, after several years of guerrilla war. They fought the battle of caer caradoc near Caersws, where the Romans were victorious. After the battle,Ostorius was honoured with triumphal insignia but the victory did not entirely quell resistance in the Welsh borders.
Caratacus and the Battle of Caer Caeradoc 51AD
Caratacus has special significance in the history of the Roman conquest of Wales. This is because he was recognised by Tacitus as being a leading figure in the resistance to Roman rule he wrote "For nine years Caractacus, king of the Silures, whose country was watered by the beautiful River Severn defied the power of Rome in the storm of siege and battle,
Plautius defeated first Caratacus, then Togodumnus, on the rivers Medway and Thames. Togodumnus was killed in battle, but Caratacus survived and to continue the resistance to the invasion, he travelled to South Wales where he became the war leader of the Silures Caratacus refused to fight a pitched battle, employing hit and run tactics instead and drawing the legion up the south Wales valleys and into central Wales and Ordovician territory. Having now the support of two significant tribes, Caratacus chose to stand and fight. The outcome was decisive, the Ordovices had fortified a ridge of steep hills above the river and the difficulty of the terrain behind them made an encircling manoeuvre by the Romans impossible. Although Ostorius was concerned at the seemingly impregnable defences, Tacitus records that the eagerness and loyalty of his troops persuaded him to attack and in the end the Britons were easily defeated. Caratacus' wife and daughter were captured and his brother surrendered while Caratacus himself fled to the territory of the Brigantes. However their queen, Cartimandua, was loyal to Rome and handed him over in chains.
He was taken prisoner and led captive through the streets of imperial Rome. Calm and unsubdued he stood before the tribunal of Caesar, and spoke of his downfall. 'alas that a people so wealthy and luxurious can envy me my humble home in Britain!' ending with the ever-memorable words: 'Had I yielded sooner my misfortune would have been less notorious, and your conquest much less renowned, and oblivion soon would have followed my death. If now, Caesar, you spare my life, I shall be an eternal monument to your clemency,' Claudius was so impressed with the speech, that he ordered him to be set at liberty and treated with great respect.
No more is heard about Caratacus, but there are some interesting records referring to his family, his father Bran first introduced Christianity into Britain, and he received the doctrine from the lips of St. Paul during his seven years of exile in Rome. Caractacus's second son Llyn (Linius) was ordained by St Paul, and became the first Christian Bishop Of Rome, Eurgain the eldest daughter is recorded as being the first female Christian saint in Britain and his second daughter, Gladys was 'adopted' by Emperer Claudius
51 Caratacus flees to Cartimandua, Queen of the Brigantes. She is a ‘client queen’ allied to the Romans and turns him in 51 A legion suffers defeat by Silures, far from subduing the tribes, the defeat and capture of Caratacus was followed by heavy fighting against the Silures.
51/52 Occupation of the Cheshire plain sought to sever links between the Welsh tribes and the Brigantes.
52 Ostorius died unexpectedly supposedly "worn out with care" as Tacitus puts it. It has been claimed that his final resting place is in Clawdd Coch in the Vale of Glamorgan.
Aulus Didius Gallus 52 - 57 He was made governor of Britannia at a time when the situation was deteriorating as a result of a string of rebellions in particular by the Silures. Didius acted to quell the rebels rather than enlarge the empire during his rule and although criticised by Tacitus as being reactive and defensive, he was probably acting on instructions from Claudius who did not consider the benefits of further conquest in difficult terrain to be great enough to warrant the risk. Instead, Didius built roads and forts at the borders such as those at Usk to contain the barbarians. After five years in the post, covering the last two years of the reign of Claudius and the first three of Nero, Didius was replaced.
52–57 Restored order after the Silures defeated a legion. He made some territorial gains but Tacitus accused him of inertia. Irrespective of Tacitus’ opinion, the frontier is thought to have been pushed well into the west of the lower Severn
54 Emperor Claudius dies and is succeeded by Nero Probable that Gallus ordered not to invade Wales, but undertake a programme of fort building and reorganise Roman forces to defend the border and in preparation for future campaigns. He creates the legionary bases at Wroxeter and Usk and a network of forts linked by straight roads and situated a day's march from each other were established in this period showing that the Romans strategy was to gain control of the area and hold it.
Wroxeter played an intrinsic part in the conquest of Wales. It is thought that the legion based here attacked north Wales in reprisal for raids by the Deceangli on the Cornovii. When the Boudiccan rebellion threatened Rome’s hold on Britain, the troops withdrew from most of Wales and Wroxeter became a pivotal part of the new front line. Finally in AD 70s Wroxeter became the staging area for the build-up of forces that ultimately led to Roman domination. The main roads into Wales from the west Midlands today follow the same valleys the Romans followed.
Quintus Veranius 57 In order to fulfil his promise to lay the whole province at Nero’s feet, he reversed Didius's policy of maintaining existing borders and began military operations against the Silures , but died within a year. In his will he claimed that, had he had another two years, he would have conquered the whole of the island. He was replaced by Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, and the speed with which Suetonius took Wales suggests that Veranius had already done much of the work.
Gaius Suetonias Paulinus 58 - 62 Paullinus’ governorship is thought to be one of the most decisive in the history of Roman Britain, as it destroyed the Druids’ influence on the tribes. He continued Veranius's policy of aggressively subduing the Welsh tribes and was successful for his first two years in the post.
58 and 59 Welsh conquest continues, northern Wales assumed to have been brought under Roman control in preparation for the assault on Anglesey.
Attack on Anglesey 60AD
Anglesey’s strategic importance was clearly significant. It was a place of refuge for dissenters, and had considerable agricultural and mineral wealth, but the main incentive for the campaign seems to have been the desire to destroy the druids last major outpost . The Romans legions XIV and XX attacked Mona with a level of brutality and ferocity rarely seen elsewhere in their conquest of Britain, such was their determination to wipe out the druids. It is thought that the Romans crossed the Menai Straits at low tide, when there was only a narrow strip of water between Anglesey and the mainland. Although they were initially cowed by their superstitions, urging from their commanders soon led them to inflict a bloody slaughter on the the defending Deceangli force , making especially sure to kill the druids, destroy their sacred groves, and cover their altars with the blood and entrails of British captives. Before the victory over the Deceangli can be secured, however, Paulinus is forced to abandon the campaign and rush his troops eastwards to deal with the massive rebellion led by queen Boudicca
The attack is documented by Tacitus.
"Ranks of warriors lined the Anglesey shore, urged on by their women, shrieking like furies, dressed in burial black, while druids, with arms outstretched to heaven, cursed the invaders."
"The legionnaries doffed their clothes and swam naked across the Menai Straights to do battle with the druid-led Celts".
“The novelty of the fight struck the Romans with awe and terror. They stood in stupid amazement, as if their limbs were benumbed, riveted to one spot, a mark for the enemy. The exhortations of the general diffused new vigor through the ranks, and the men, by mutual reproaches, inflamed each other to deeds of valor. They felt the disgrace of yielding to a troop of women, and a band of fanatic priests; they advanced their standards, and rushed on to the attack with impetuous fury. The Britons perished in the flames, which they themselves had kindled. The island fell, and a garrison was established to retain it in subjection. The religious groves, dedicated to superstition and barbarous rites, were leveled to the ground. In those recesses, the natives [stained] their altars with the blood of their prisoners, and in the entrails of men explored the will of the gods.”
61 Suetonius made an assault on the island of Mona (Anglesey) a stronghold of the druids and breaks the strength of the Ordovician and Silurian tribes . Queen Boudica and the Iceni tribe of the south-east of England took advantage of his absence and staged a revolt, routing a Roman legion and destroying Camulodunum ( Colchester ) with its inhabitants being tortured, raped, and slaughtered. Paullinus’ forces in England are too far away to deal with the Iceni uprising and he is forced to withdraw the army from Wales Auxiliaries and cavalry sent by Rome to reinforce the Roman garrison in Britain The army is insufficient to control both England and Wales, so conquest of Wales is abandoned.
Publius Petronius Turpilianus 62 - 63 Replaced Suetonius who had been removed from office in the wake of Boudica's rebellion. In contrast to Suetonius's punitive measures, Petronius took a conciliatory approach, and conducted few military operations. In 65 he was given a triumph, apparently for his loyalty to the emperor Nero. Following Nero's death in 68, Galba was named Emperor and during his march from Spain to Rome, he had Petronius summarily executed (or ordered him to take his own life) as a commander appointed by Nero.
Marcus Trebellius Maximus 63 - 69 He continued the policy of consolidation followed by previous governors, and conquered no new territory. He continued the Romanisation of Britain, refounding Camulodunum after the rebellion of Boudica destroyed it, also London grew in mercantile wealth under his rule.
Mid 60s A stalemate ensued the Romans withdrew to the border and there is no record of any further major campaigns for over 10 years. Silures and Ordovices have time to consolidate their holds on their territories
68 Nero deposed. Finally Vespasian becomes Emperor in Dec 69
Marcus Vettius Bolanus 69 - 71 He became governor of Britannia in the midst of the Year of the four emperors, appointed by the short-lived emperor Vitellius. The poet Statius speaks of him establishing forts and capturing trophies from a British king, probably referring to Venutius of the Brigantes.
Qunintus Petillus Cerialis 71 - 74 Arrived with a score to settle. He was in command of legio IX Hispana when it was nearly annihilated during the Boudiccan rebellion. His first task was to help Cartimandua escape a bloody civil war among the Brigantes and defeat her husband before he could turn his attention to Wales. Tacitus says " that he was a bold soldier rather than a careful general, and preferred to stake everything on the issue of a single engagement. He possessed natural eloquence of a kind that readily appealed to his soldiers. His loyalty to his superiors was unshakable."
Sextus Julius Frontinus 74 - 78 According to Tacitus, new governor Sextus Julius Frontinus ‘subdued by force of arms the strong and warlike tribe of the Silures, after a hard struggle, not only against the valour of the enemy, but against the difficulties of the terrain’.
74 There was a massive build-up of forces along the Welsh border under Frontinus including legio XX now operating out of Wroxeter and although not yet complete, both the fortresses at Chester and Caerleon would have been important bases for the new campaigns. also a network of smaller forts were established, one of which was Luentinum that controlled the gold mine of Dolaucothi. The Silures were thought to have been subjugated in this period, but Frontinus is thought to have struck further south west, possibly as far as the Cleddau, and almost certainly as far as Carmarthen.
In 95, he was appointed Water Commissioner of the aquaducts in Rome by the emperor Nerva, an office only conferred upon persons of very high standing. He produced an official report on the state of the aqueducts serving the city of Rome, the first official report of an investigation about engineering works ever to have been published.
Gnaeus Julius Agricola 78 - 84 Father-in-law of the writer Tacitus. He established a good reputation as an administrator as well as a commander by reforming the widely corrupt corn levy. He introduced Romanising measures, encouraging communities to build towns on the Roman model and educating the sons of the native nobility in the Roman manner. Agricola is credited with completing the conquest of Wales, suppressing the Ordovices and capturing Anglesey. He had been present during the capture of the island in AD 60 and it is clear that his knowledge of the terrain and people helped him.
78 Responds very aggressively to attack on Roman cavalry by Ordovices. According to Tacitus, this campaign saw ‘almost the entire tribe (of the Ordovices) cut to pieces’. However, this shouldn’t be seen as an easy victory. The fight for north Wales was fierce and bloody, with the Ordovices only succumbing after fierce resistance. By comparison, the surrender of Anglesey soon after seems to have been a much less bloody affair, possibly because of the ruthlessness of the attack in AD 60.
The legionary fortress each capable of housing a legion of 5,600 men at Caerleon and Chester had been established by the end of Agricola’s term of office. These were vital to the ongoing control of the province, having been set up in areas expected to require long term supervision. Caerleon had replaced Usk in this respect because the latter was liable to flooding and Chester had replaced Wroxeter .
Wales is all but subdued.
Summary of the Welsh tribes interaction with the Roman Invasion
Gangani
After the Roman invasion this tribe was probably kept in check by the garrison of the fort at Pen Llystyn which may well mark the border between the lands of the Ordovices and the Gangani. The name of the tribe is contained in the Roman name for the Llŷn Peninsula, Ganganorum Promontorium, found in Ptolemy's Geography, which literally means 'The headland of the Gangani'.
Deceangli
The Deceangli were targeted for conquest as the Romans considered the druids as playing a crucial role in encouraging the resistance against Rome Elemements of the tribe apparently flee Britain and find refuge with their possible relatives in Ireland.
In AD 47 Publius Ostorius Scapula, conducted a campaign against the Deceangli,. Only an outbreak of violence among the Brigantes forced the Roman governor to break off his campaign. However, the Deceangli appear to remain peaceful for a generation afterwards and no Roman forts or towns are built in their territory. There do appear to be trade links and perhaps some Roman working of the lead mines, so some level of cooperation between the tribe and Rome is probably agreed, possibly with the tribe accepting client status. A lead sow dated to 74 discovered River Dee, at the Roodeye in Chester with the words 'IMP VESP AVGV T IMP III' (Emperor Vespasian) and the name Deceangli inscribed along the side suggests that Romans were working the lead mines in this area, probably with the cooperation of the Deceangli. In 78 - 79 Fresh from inflicting a final defeat and almost complete destruction upon the Ordovices, Roman Governor, Julius Agricola, attacks and defeats the Deceangli, the tribe appears to capitulate and settles down to live under Roman rule and a string of forts such as Trawscoed Fort are built throughout the territory and it would seem that the tribe was governed from the Roman cavalry fort on the Afon Conwy.
Silures
The Silures, offered strong resistance to the Romans. Indeed, between 45–57 CE it is probably fair to say that they led the Brittish opposition to the westwards Roman advance.
The Roman Tacitus wrote of the Silures: the tribe "was changed neither by cruelty nor by clemency" and that they were a 'strong and warlike nation'
Emperor Claudius said that the very name of Silures must be extirpated.
Their initial resistance was led by Caratacus, but even after his defeat and subsequent capture the Silures were not subdued and waged effective guerilla warfare against the Roman forces. Ostorius had announced that they posed such a danger that they should be either exterminated or transplanted. His threats only increased the Silures' determination to resist and a large legionary force building Roman forts in Silurian territory was attacked and almost destroyed. The Silures took Roman prisoners as hostages and distributed them amongst their neighbouring tribes in order to encourage resistance. Ostorius died with the Silures still unconquered and, after his death, they defeated the Second Legion. It remains unclear whether the Silures were actually militarily defeated or simply agreed to come to terms, but Roman sources suggest rather opaquely that they were eventually subdued by Sextus Julius Frontinus in a series of campaigns ending about AD 78. To aid the Roman administration in c75 a legionary fortress Isca, later Caerleon was planted in the midst of the territory.
Demetae
They were an agrarian peoples living in small settlements and like most of the other agrarian tribes they adapted readily to Roman rule and were friendly towards the Romans. Because of this the Demetae did not need to be intensively garrisoned by the Roman army, except along their eastern border, which may have been to protect them from their hostile neighbours, the Silures. The tribe was incorporated into the province of Britannia and became a civitas (an administrative unit, or county, within the Roman province). The capital of the Roman civitas was at Carmarthen (Moridundum Demetarum).
Ordovices
They were among the few British tribes that resisted the Roman invasion. The resistance was mainly organized by Caratacus,In the 70s, the Ordovices rebelled again against Roman occupation and destroyed a cavalry squadron. This act of war provoked an equally strong response from Agricola, who, according to Tacitus, in 77-78 exterminated the whole tribe. No other mention of the tribe appears in the historical records, but in view of the mountainous terrain of the lands of the Ordovices it is questionable whether Agricola could have wiped out the entire population.
Final Thoughts
The Romans did not approach Wales as a single objective. Having invaded the lowlands of south east England, Wales was one of the first significant areas of upland the Roman army encountered. It was a large western landmass, occupied by disparate tribes, who were hostile to Rome. They used the river valleys to press inland constructing marching camps and temporary bases to secure their gains. The Welsh terrain was a significant factor in the conquest’s progress, working in favour of the Welsh tribes, especially inland, which was best suited to guerrilla warfare. The Romans needed to secure and control the river valleys before they could penetrate and control the Welsh tribes of the uplands.
The peoples of Wales were viewed by Roman historians as warlike and fiercely independent, led by horse-loving, martial elites and guided in their affairs by Druids. Fighting the discipline of a Roman army was however a new and different challenge. The Celts belief that in death the soul of the dead person transferred to another living person would have made them fearless, formidable opponents, and their strategy appears to have been to work themselves up into a raged fit, then launching an initial spear throwing charge by warriors travelling in two horse chariots, followed by a feroucious frontal assault by warriors wielding long bladed slashing swords in an attempt to breach the solid mass of the Roman phalynx, often they would charge into battle fully naked, dyed head to toe in blue wold and screaming like banshees. They also tended to bring the whole tribe with them to the battle and although this may have had benefits such as with the provision of meals and improved moral, it was also an encumbance. The Romans obviously admired the courage and bravery of the Celts, but it was the lack of a disciplined strategy that would finally lead to their defeat and subjucation by the better armed and disciplined Romans.
www.bukisa.com/articles/37180_the-roman-invasion-of-wales