Wales was part of the Roman Empire for over 300 years. The Occupation covers the period from c 78 to the establishment of civitas status for the Silures and Demetae in the early 2nd century. and the Settlement covers the period from the early 2nd century to the withdrawal of military and political support in 383
Wales was mainly used by the Romans as a rich source of mineral wealth and the Romans mined large amounts of gold, copper and lead, as well other metals such as zinc and silver. There were no significant industries for the manufacture of goods for trade and export located in Wales, as Wales had none of the needed materials in suitable combination to produce large amounts of iron or pewter, it did not have suitable soil for pottery manufacture and glass-making sites were located around the bigger urban centres of south east England, also the forested, mountainous countryside was not that amenable to industrialisation. There are a few sites such as the gold mines of Dolaucothi (nr Pumsaint), the tile manufactury at Usk and Holt (nr Wrexham) and the ironworks at Ariconium (nr Ross on Wye), but most of the Roman remains in Wales are military in nature.
The conquest of Britain took considerable manpower but there was a gradual but significant reduction of soldiers as the role of the conquering army changed from aggressor to enforcer once the conquest was complete. This was a balance between maintaining control and providing much needed forces elsewhere. The Roman plan was to steer its conquered peoples to peaceful self-government, developing trade and gathering taxes.
The Romans divided their new province Britannia into a civilian lowland area and a highland military zone, of which Wales formed part of. Wales was controlled by Roman Legions based at Deva Victrix (Chester) and Isca Augusta (Caerleon). Caerleon held a force of approximately 5,600 men and outside its walls was erected a stone amphitheatre to hold gladiatorial combats. Its stone foundations remain today, clearly showing the classic layout of a Roman legionary fort and is the best place in Europe in which to appreciate the layout of a Roman legionary fort. Both Chester and Caerleon commanded a network of auxiliary forts at strategic strongpoints across Wales, which were linked by a system of straight roads, a surviving feature of our modern landscape. the Romans built at least 30 auxiliary forts, spaced a day’s march from each other, such as Y Gaer (Brecon), Llanio, Abergavenny, Usk, Monmouth, Cardhill, Neath, Loughor, Segontium (Caernarfon) and Castle Collen near Llandridnod Wells. The Romans did not penetrate far into West Wales, apart from their forts at Moridunum (Carmarthen) and Llandovery.
Civilian Life under the Romans
The Roman conquest changed the settlement pattern for Wales Roman rule in Wales was virtually a military occupation, apart from the southern coastal region of South Wales .the new forts provided new markets for trade and commerce. Settlements often grew next to the forts they served. Retired soldiers settled down, setting up homes and businesses outside the forts they once defended.
The Roman government of the province of Britain was broken down into large administrative areas based on the existing territories of the conquered Celtic tribes. This system made use of the established communication links between these tribes These administrative sub-divisions of Roman provincial government are known as civitates. which were self-governing administrative centres, based on tribal areas. These civitas had all the ammenities one would expect of a full Roman city ie. public baths, a forum, a basilica, temples, and merchants houses complete with all the "mod-cons" such as central heating, murals and mosaic floors
The only civitates in Wales were at Morodunum (Carmarthen) and Venta Silurum (Caerwent) siuated twelve miles east of Caerleon, it is thought to have been the most populous town in Wales with a population of about 3,000 and was the only new town in Wales founded by the Romans, it also has the best preserved town defences in Britain. Multi-cultural populations concentrated around these bigger forts, bringing trade goods from across the Empire.
Many of the Romano-British settlements in Britain began with small civilian communities in the vicinity of a Roman auxiliary fort. The soldiers' regular salaries attracted the attentions of merchants offering all kinds of merchandise and every sort of service which would tempt a Roman soldier to reasonably part with his money. Apart from the obvious ale-houses, bakeries and brothels, there would be tailors, cobblers, smiths and other tradesmen. Even though it was not permitted for any of the common Roman soldiery to be legally married, plenty of illicit affiliations were constantly going on and it is very probable, therefore, that a substantial proportion of each of these initial settlements would be composed of the soldiers' dependants.
These small settlements were in effect garrison towns and were called vici, as they tended to develop along either side of the street or vicus leading from the main gate of the parent fort, with their frontages opening onto this main road, they had no civilian administration and were under the direct control of the Roman military commander. Often the civitates were not big enough to settle everyone who wished to live in a town and so vici also attracted a wider range of residents Those that attracted significant numbers were later permitted to form local councils, examples of vici are Abergavenny and Caersws.
In areas of civil control, such as the territories of a civitas, there were a large number of villas, the country mansions of the Romanised British upper classes who adopted the trappings of Roman civilisation, including the state religion . A dozen villas have been found in Wales, the largest at Llantwit Major, another at Ely near Cardiff and at least three in the neighbourhood of Caerwent. In these areas the occupation of hill forts was banned as a matter of Roman policy.
However in much of the country Roman influence became weaker the further those people were from Roman forts, for many isolated communities it is thought that life went on as it had before the invasion. This is most evident in the historical remains from the tribes of north Wales for example the square buildings of Din Lligwy on Anglesey reflect Roman influences, whilst the hut circles of Holyhead Mountain occupied in the same period do not. Caer Leb, also on Anglesey, has evidence of both styles.
The Romans allowed the Celtic ruling classes to keep their lands inferring that local leaders who were willing to accommodate Roman interests were encouraged and allowed to continue under local law and custom. The Romans did not discourage the use of hillforts and in hill villages such as Tre'r Ceiri, the inhabitants were probably only in contact with the Empire on their rare visits to the vicus at Caernarfon, the market and civil settlement which lay outside the walls of the Caernarfon fort of Segontium. Many other farmsteads show little evidence of cultural adaptation beyond some pottery and small quantities of coins, The classic Iron Age round house remained the norm for many settlements; it has been calculated that less than 1% of the British population lived in villas.
Unlike in most of Western Europe, the Latin of the Romans did not replace the native language of the people and the vast majority of the population still spoke Brythonic, even though the language of the aristocracy and the Romanized cities, was Latin . It did, however, have an impact upon it, for absorbed Latin words for things like forts, windows, rooms and books, words which were passed on into modern Welsh.
Roman art had an impact too, for it replaced the Celtic art of the Britons. Among members of the upper classes at least, there was a readiness to accept that they themselves were Roman, especially after AD 214 when the emperor, Caracalla, granted Roman citizenship to all free men throughout the Empire.
Tribes
Agricola is said by Tacitus to have used the trappings of Romanisation to ‘enslave’ the British tribes by provideding support for building bath houses, basilicas, forums and amphitheatres.
The Romans’ ideal for the acquisition of new territory was based on preparing conquered tribes to develop cities as centres for trade, administration, amenity and entertainment. In Britain the Romans created various kinds of self-governing communities based for the most part on the existing pre-Roman tribal divisions. The plan allowed them to withdraw military resources without losing control and, more importantly, taxes. The Silures and Demetae were granted civitas status, with their tribal capitals at Caerwent (Venta Silurum) and Carmarthen (Moridunum), the Decangli now included with the Gangani and the Ordovicies were not
The Demetae of south-west Wales offered little opposition to the Romans, the Silures gradually adapted to the presence of the Romans among them and gave little trouble after the mid 2nd century. The Ordovices on the other hand remained a source of irritation to the Romans for generations as we can judge by the continued military presence and lack of villas in this area also in the Forum in Rome there is a vast mosaic map of the Roman Empire, the territory of the Ordovices is not shown suggesting they were not acknowledged as a territory. The Deceangli also never fully accepted Roman culture and the Romans siezed control of the Deceangli's lead mining industry based at Halkyn Hills and Pentre Flint (Both in Flintshire).
Timeline
End of the first century
The forts were not all fully manned for long, as most of the inhabitants of Wales came to accept Roman rule. The number of men and distribution of forts by the middle of the AD 80s shows that the army’s role had switched from conquest to occupation. The build-up of troops and forts necessary for peace keeping soon became a surplus. Demands from elsewhere saw a steady removal of forces, but this was a selective withdrawal. Pacification led to the establishment of a network of garrison bases designed to overawe and police the vanquished. They show us the areas that the Romans expected to be most troublesome, including Forden, Caersws, Llandeilo, Llandovery, and possibly Llanfor, Rhyn Park, and probably Neath. New forts were built in populous areas, or used to supervise tribes living in the uplands. They also served to control passage between upland areas by encircling and penetrating mountain strongholds. Most of these were new forts, not part of previous campaigning. Some were old sites put to new use such as Hindwell Farm, Cardiff and Abergavenny. The average distance between forts in the new network was only 20 km. In addition, the Romans built fortlets at intermediary locations, especially river crossings and at the heads of steep gradients, such as at Pen y Crocbren. North and south Wales were managed separately, divided between the two legionary commands at Caerleon and Chester. Castell Collen near Llandrindod was the northernmost fort of the Caerleon command. Chester’s command extended south as far as Caersws.
77 Segontium became the centre of Roman control for north Wales. A force of 1,000 auxiliary soldiers was stationed there for 30 years . The fort managed the copper mines of Parys Mountain on Anglesey.
79 The number of troops and forts was reduced for an offensive against the north under Agricola.
83 Troops from across Britain were being drafted to serve in Emperor Domitian’s Chattan War
83/84 Wroxeter, which had served as the lynch-pin of operations in mid and north west Wales was demilitarised
87 Government of south Wales moves towards set up of self governing city states for Silures and Demetae.
90, most of the native Welsh tribes had been defeated and almost all of Wales had fallen under Roman rule. There may well have been one exception however, a mosaic map in the Forum in Rome showing the extent of the Roman Empire, does not include tribal lands of the Ordovices.
98 Writing at this time, Tacitus mentions the Deceangli, dropping the 'de-' prefix to call them Ceangli.
The second century
Once Roman rule was established, Wales is seldom mentioned by any of the reporters of the time. More significant events were taking place in Rome and elsewhere in the Empire.
101–102 and 105–106 Emperor Trajan reduced the garrisons to support his two wars against the Dacian Kingdom in . As a result some auxiliary units never returned to Britain.
119 The new governor, Pompeius Falco, arrived with 3,000 new troops from Germany and Spain, brought in to deal with trouble in northern Britain. Welsh troops were also relocated.
120 Many auxiliary forts are abandoned Silures and Demetae become self-governing communities with Caerwent as tribal capital of the Silures and Carmarthen for the Demetae Iron Age life continues mostly unchanged in rural areas, especially in the north and south-west
122 Hadrian’s Wall built. Part of the Welsh garrison was sent to help build it.
124–126 Building the wall caused further unrest on the northern border causing a rapid reduction of the Roman garrison in Wales. This resulted in the abandonment and reduction in size of some forts. Reduced forts include Tomen y Mur and Castell Collen. Gelligaer was rebuilt as a smaller stone fort close to the original timber and earth fort.
mid-second century The advances made in Scotland under Antoninus Pius necessitated further commitment of legionaries from Wales, only a few forts in the middle of Wales and Segontium on the north coast were maintained,
130 Trawscoed Fort and the Bryn-y-Gefeiliau are abandoned.
140 There were too few forts in Wales to provide an effective military response to an uprising, so the Romans must have been confident that much of Wales was now stable.
140s Ptolemy assigns much of northern and central Wales to the Ordovices, he also mentions the Gangani tribe which occupies the Llyn Peninsula. He calls this area the 'promontory of the Gangani'. and are kept in check by the fort of Pen Llystyn.
late 2nd century Caerwent fortified with earthen bank and wooden palisade Indicates level of trust Romans placed on their allegiance.
Third century
The century started with the new Emperor Septimius Severus dividing Britain into two provinces in order to limit the power of its governors. Wales became part of Britannia Superior, ruled from London.
212 Roman citizenship for every freeman in Wales
230 Wales was no longer seen as a frontier zone,and as few as nine forts were left. These were: Chester, Caernarfon, Forden Gaer, Caersws II, Castell Collen, Brecon Gaer, Caerleon, Gelligaer and Abergavenny.the low troop density of the second century continued, and after AD 230 it dropped further.
253 - 255 The barracks at Caerleon were refurbished under Titus Desticius Juba's governorship
260 Postumus seized control of Gaul and Germany and two years later Britain and Spain, to create the ‘Gallic Empire’.
274 Emperor Aurelian brought Britain back into the Empire.
The territory of modern Wales even had its own Emperors from 286-296, Carausius (Carawn in Welsh legend), and Allectus. The latter was defeated by Constantius, who ruled the Empire in the West, while Diocletian managed affairs in the East. This split in the Empire was followed by a further split in the governing of Brittania, which was divided into four pieces. Although the divisions are not clear, it seems likely that Wales was part of Brittania Prima, which had its capital at Cirencester.
287 Carausius, commander of the Channel fleet, seizes control of Britain and Northern Gaul
293 Carausis is assassinated and succeeded by Allectus
Raiders from Ireland, Scotland and Gaul, encouraged by the depletion of forces, started to attack the English and Welsh coast. this resulted in the construction of a line of coastal defences known as the ‘Saxon Shore’ forts of which Cardiff was one. The forts at Loughor and Neath may also have been reoccupied for same purpose during this time. It’s thought that Caer Gybi on Holyhead and its later watch tower were built to defend the north Welsh coast and mining interests on Anglesey.
296 Britain re-taken by Constantius Chlorus who defeated the usurper Allectus and divided into four provinces. Wales was part of Britannia Prima and was governed from Cirencester.
Fourth century
The 4th century saw a commercial boom in Britain which was to end abruptly. There were a number of crises both in Britain and elsewhere.
330 Caerwent town walls built in stone. Cardiff fort rebuilt in stone. Saxon Shore forts built on South Coast of England to defend against raids from Northern Europe. Cardiff may have replaced Caerleon as the main defensive stronghold in south Wales.
Raiders attacking from Ireland cause fortifications to be improved at Caernarfon (Segontium) and Holyhead (Caer Gybi) Christianity becoming state religion but little evidence of impact in Wales Welsh tribes still also maintain local religious practices
349 –350 Caerwent towers fortified in stone
In addition to the fortification of the civitas-capitals, many villas and farmsteads are thought to have been abandoned by the mid-4th century, if not before.
367 The Great Conspiracy. The Roman garrison on Hadrian's Wall rebelled, and allowed the Picts to enter Britain, in a coordinated attack with the Scotti and Saxons invading South East England. They managed to overwhelm nearly all of the loyal Roman outposts and settlements of the west and north. The areani or local agents whom the Romans paid to provide intelligence on barbarian movements seem to have betrayed their paymasters for bribes. Deserting soldiers and escaped slaves roamed the countryside and turned to robbery to support themselves.
368 Theodosius brought a field army from the Continent to deal with the marauders; he also overhauled the Province’s defences. .
383 Magnus Maximus (Macsen Wledig) gained control of Britain, Spain and Gaul leads troops from Wales for invasion of Gaul but is killed fighting Theodosius trying to take Italy.
Magnus Maximus
( Flavius Magnus Maximus Augustus (Macsen Wledig in Welsh) ca. 335 – August 28, 388)
In the second half of the 4th century the Empire became increasingly unstable as barbarian attacks on the borders increased, and it seems that the legions were gradually withdrawn from Wales to counter threats on the continent.
390 By now the territory of the Deceangli has a sprinkling of Roman villas and is relatively settled. The tribe does not have a chance to re-emerge at a time when Roman central authority in the west of Britain is fading earlier and faster than elsewhere. Under threat by waves of Irish raiders, the tribe's lands are incorporated along with much of those of the Ordovices into a new territory when Cunedda Wledig and his branch of Romanised Venicones are transferred from the Manau dependency of the Goutodin to secure north Wales from the raiders. They are extremely successful, and the kingdom of Gwynedd is formed by them.
390 There were probably no Roman troops remaining within the borders of Wales. In the next few decades most of the legionnaries in England followed and Brittania was esentially undefended.
393 Civil War on the continent stops garrison pay at Segontium. Theodosis restores unity of Western Empire
398 General Stilicho sends troops to Britain to deal with the invading Irish, Picts and Saxons
Fifth century – the end of the Roman Britain
By the start of the century the Empire was split between Constantinople in the East and Rome in the West and Britain was essentially divided into two halves. In the east, society centred on a highly Romanised Christian élite, whilst to the west and north society focused on an un-Romanised pagan aristocracy. The withdrawl of troops from Wales eventually resulted in the Romans losing control, this was brought about from the ambition of army leaders who sought to usurp the title of emperor eg, in 383, Magnus Maximus striped Britain of most of its garrison in his campaign to become Emperor, also Britain was coming under constant attack from the Picts from the North, the Irish from the West and the Saxons from the East and Rome itself was occupied by the Gothic forces of Alaric and the emperor had no alternative but to take troops from Britain
405 Pirates under Nial ravaged the western coast, and may have precipitated a fresh influx of Irish settlers.
Irish Settlers
An Irish Gaelic presence existed in north Wales as early as the 1st century BC as the Gaelic tribal group of the Gangani migrated across the Irish sea from modern Leinster and it is known that the
Irish were trading with the Roman Empire from the 1st century as Roman artifacts have been found at Roman trading bases at Stoneyford and Malahide (north Dublin), The Irish made frequent raids on Roman Britain from 297 until about 450 and during this period several Irish colonies were made in parts of Wales, not all of the raids were aggressive as some settlements were peaceful with no evidence of conflict.
It is thought that the Gaels from Ireland once occupied the whole of Anglesey, Breconshire, Carnarvon, Merioneth,Pembrokeshire, Carmarthenshire and Cardiganshire, and also parts of Denbighshire, Montgomery, and Radnor. Ogham inscriptions in an early form of Irish have been found in Pembrokeshire and Carmarthenshire and numerous place names in Wales have Irish connections, for instance, the Welsh name of Holyhead, Cerrig y Gwyddell, is translated as the 'Rocks of the Gaels', it was the Welsh who first described the Irish as ‘Gaels’ – derived from a Welsh word meaning ‘wild’. The Welsh language still contains many Irish words and ancient Welsh and Irish literature refers to invasions of Wales by the Irish.
By the end of the 3rd century a prolonged period of stability and security was ending and by the middle of the 4th century the declining power of the Empire along with a possible depopulation in Wales caused by plague or famine, provided opportunities for coastal raiders from Ireland and Scotland, joined by deserting Roman soldiers and opportunist natives.
Eochaid Allmuir was ruler of the Deisi (of Waterford and Tipperary) and led settlers into Dyfed at end of the fourth century, the line of the kings of Dyfed are decended from him
The instability and the threat of attacks led to new and improved defences at towns and coastal ports. Caerwent and Carmarthen rebuilt their walls in stone and Cardiff became the most important military and naval base defending the Bristol Channel and the Roman provincial capital at Cirencester.
Cunedda
410 Rome sacked by Visigoths, Emperor Honorius withdraws Roman support from Britain and according to Gildas, advises the Britons to organise their own defences against the Barbarian threat.
440 Britain abandoned by the Romans and passed into the power of the Saxons
Roman customs held on for several years in southern Wales, lasting into the end of the 5th century, Caerwent continued to be occupied after the Roman departure.
Gildas wrote of the decline and ruin of Britain caused by its debauched and decadent rulers, with the pagan invaders being God's revenge for their spectacular fall from grace. The conflict, particularly with the Anglo-Saxons, created a process during the next two hundred years whereby a 'Welsh' people emerged out of the remaining Romano-Britons and native peoples, with their identity being chiefly based on a common religion christianity and a common language.
Summaries and legacies
The evidence of Roman times can be found across our landscape, some of it integral to our modern lives. Our road and rail network follows Roman roads. We live in towns and villages that first grew under Roman rule. Our languages retain words and phrases from our Roman past. The Empire also improved agricultural practices that made urban populations more sustainable and introduced money, mass production, regular long-distance trade, sanitation, drainage literacy and ultimately introduced Christianity to Wales. Roman ways improved the standard of living of a small but influential part of the population. They enjoyed central heating, running water, medicine, personal hygiene, improved communications and prosperity. However, life in Wales, outside of the main cultural centres, changed very little. It’s very possible that people living in the most remote areas never saw the cities and rarely saw Roman soldiers.
Religion and christianity
Romans were very tolerant of the religions of others. If it didn't threaten the Roman presence it was tolerated, Also they appear to have believed that it wasn't worth risking incurring the wrath of the native gods, for they would only experience bad fortune during their stay in this foreign land, so they paired off their Roman gods with their British equivalents, and erecting joint shrines, In Wales an example of a 'composite deity' was found in temple dedicated to Mars-Oculus at Caerwent. The exception of the Roman's tolerence were the Druids, who the Romans identified the Druids as a threat to their control and acted to eradicate their influence.
Christianity arrived in Wales at the height of Roman power and was banned initially by the authorities who were suspicious of its secrecy and exclusivity, in the early fourth century, two men named Aaron and Julius were executed in Caerleon for following a proscribed religion and became acknowledged as the first Welsh Christian martyrs, but from 313 under Emperor Constantine it could be freely practiced throughout the Empire. However initially in Wales, Christianity was the religion of the civitas, the earliest Christian object found in Caerwent is a vessel with the ancient Christian symbol the Chi-Rho, dated 375 AD . By the end of the 4th century Christianity became the sole official religion of the Roman Empire, but the in-depth Christianisation of Wales did not take place until after the fall of the Empire. .
Road Network
The road network is one of the most obvious Roman features of the modern Welsh landscape. Many of our modern roads follow the Roman pattern.
Strategic roads had existed from AD 50, but now 1,100 km of new roads and bridges were built for the unhindered movement of supplies and troops as only 25% of the new garrisons could be supplied by ship. Excellent communication and administration were at the heart of the success of the Roman system and the roads facilitated this. Once Wales was brought under control, the legions quickly secured their position by developing a system of forts connected by a network of roads, many of the new forts were inland and not close to navigable rivers. The roads made communication very quick. A messenger could travel 50 miles in a day and expect fresh horses, food and shelter at a series of wayside inns called ‘mansiones’ along their route.